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Siti Hawa Mat Yaman Chemical Engineering Studies, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Cawangan Pulau Pinang, Permatang Pauh Campus, 13500 Pulau Pinang, Malaysia Norhusna Mohamad Nor Chemical Engineering Studies, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Cawangan Pulau Pinang, Permatang Pauh Campus, 13500 Pulau Pinang, Malaysia Mohd Azahar Mohd Ariff Chemical Engineering Studies, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Cawangan Pulau Pinang, Permatang Pauh Campus, 13500 Pulau Pinang, Malaysia Ellisa Natasya Rosli Chemical Engineering Studies, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Cawangan Pulau Pinang, Permatang Pauh Campus, 13500 Pulau Pinang, Malaysia
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| Abstract | |
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This study evaluated the effectiveness of graphene-based adsorbents in purifying phenolic compounds extracted from palm kernel cake (PKC) by supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) at 80°C, 300 bar, and 42 minutes. Four adsorbents—graphite, graphene oxide (GO), nitrogen-reduced GO (N-rGO), and three-dimensional nitrogen-doped reduced graphene oxide (3D-N-rGO)—were tested under fixed adsorption conditions (30°C, 1g adsorbent, 60 min, 300 rpm). Among these, 3D-N-rGO exhibited the highest adsorption capacity (15.47 mg/g), nearly double that of graphite (7.76 mg/g), and achieved the highest desorption ratio (75.58%). It also reduced the total phenolic content from 0.6162 to 0.1927 mg GAE/g bio-oil, representing a reduction of 68.7% . FTIR analysis confirmed the presence of nitrogen-related functional groups (N–H, C=N at ~1550–1650cm-1) and a reduction in oxygen-containing groups (C=O at ~1720 cm-1, C–O at ~1050–1250cm-1), indicating successful nitrogen doping and deoxygenation. These structural features enhanced hydrophobicity and selectivity toward phenolic compounds. The findings suggest that 3D-N-rGO shows promise for applications in phytochemical purification, wastewater treatment, and bio-refinery processes. However, challenges such as adsorbent regeneration, material cost, and scalability must be addressed before industrial implementation. |
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| Keyword: Adsorption, Graphene Oxide, Hydrophobic Properties, Palm Kernel Cake (PKC), Purification Supercritical Fluid Extraction (SFE) | |
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Enhanced purification of supercritical fluid extracts of palm kernel cake phenolics using modified graphene-based adsorbents
